The Cape
Cape Canaveral
As the reader may already be aware, Cape Canaveral was not always known
as "Cape Canaveral." Under Presidential Executive Order No.11129
(29 November 1963), Air Force facilities on Cape Canaveral and NASA's holdings
on Merritt Island were designated as the John F. Kennedy Space Center.
In line with this order, the Air Force changed the name of its reservation
on Cape Canaveral from Cape Canaveral Missile Test Annex to Cape Kennedy
Air Force Station on 22 January 1964. The Cape and the Air Force Station
were officially renamed Cape Canaveral and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
on 1 April 1974. To avoid confusing the reader, we will refrain from
switching back and forth between "Cape Kennedy" and "Cape
Canaveral." We will refer to both the Cape and the Air Force Station
as simply "the Cape."
THOR-ABLE,
THOR-ABLE I and THOR-ABLE II - THOR-ABLE-STAR
The THOR ballistic missile was used as the first stage for each
of those launch vehicles. The THOR weighed 110,400 pounds, and it was 62.5
feet long and 8 feet in diameter. It was propelled by a single liquid-fueled
rocket motor rated at between 135,000 pounds and 150,000 pounds of thrust.
The ABLE second stage was an Aerojet-General booster rated at 7,700 pounds
of thrust. The ABLE I added the Allegheny Ballistic Laboratory's 2,450-pound-thrust
solid rocket as the third stage to the ABLE second stage. The THOR ABLE
II consisted of a THOR first stage and a modified Aerojet-General 10-40
second stage. Aerojet-General's ABLE-STAR upper stage was designed to boost
a 1,000-pound payload into a 300-mile orbit.
Space Programs Office
The Space Programs Office was renamed the Office of the Deputy for
Space Systems on 25 September 1961.
three
branches (i.e., ATLAS Boosters, THOR Boosters and BLUE SCOUT)
The THOR and ATLAS booster branches were outgrowths of the Air Force's
ballistic missile programs. The BLUE SCOUT Branch evolved from the 6555th's
involvement in Aeroneutronic's small solid rocket experimental launch operations
on Launch Complex 18 at the Cape.
ATLAS D and AGENA B
The ATLAS D space booster was essentially a modified ATLAS Intercontinental
Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Like the ATLAS D series missile, the ATLAS space
booster was 75 feet long and 10 feet in diameter. It was a kerosene-fueled
vehicle powered by two (first-stage) 154,000-pound-thrust Rocketdyne vernier
booster engines and a 57,000-pound-thrust (half stage) sustainer engine.
The AGENA B upper stage was 21.6 feet long and five feet in diameter. It
used Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) for fuel and Inhibited Red
Fuming Nitric Acid (IRFNA) as an oxidizer. The ATLAS D was used to launch
MERCURY capsules, and the ATLAS/AGENA B combination was used to launch
other spacecraft. The combined weight of the ATLAS/AGENA-B vehicle (minus
payload) was approximately 292,000 pounds.
BLUE SCOUT
The BLUE SCOUT I launch vehicle consisted of an Aerojet-General solid
rocket, a Thiokol TX-33 solid rocket and an Allegheny Ballistic Laboratory
ABL-X254 solid rocket. The SCOUT and the BLUE SCOUT II both included those
rocket stages, plus an Allegheny Ballistic Laboratory ABL-X248 rocket.
The BLUE SCOUT JUNIOR consisted of a TX-33, an ABL-X254, an Aerojet-General
AJ 10-41 rocket motor and the NOTS 100A solid rocket. Following six launches
in 1961, BLUE SCOUT operations at Launch Complex 18 were scaled back drastically
but not eliminated. Toward the end of 1961, Aeroneutronic began providing
only limited assistance to the BLUE SCOUT Branch via a Letter Contract.
TITAN III
TITAN IIIA and TITAN IIIC launch vehicles were configured around a
modified TITAN II ICBM first stage as their first stage core. That core
stage was rated at 430,000 pounds of thrust at sea level, and it provided
the Titan IIIA with all its power at lift-off. Two 10-foot diameter solid
rocket motors were attached to the basic "A" configuration to
make the TITAN IIIC, and those five-segment solid rockets developed 2,314,000
pounds of thrust-all the power the 1,300,000-pound TITAN IIIC needed to
lift itself off the pad. The TITAN IIIC's first stage core fired at an
altitude of 28 nautical miles, later in the flight. Both vehicles employed
a liquid-fueled second stage (rated at 100,000 pounds of thrust) and a
small, pressure-fed transtage (rated at 16,000 pounds of thrust) to place
their payloads into orbit.
TITAN IIIC facilities
The Cape's TITAN IIIC construction program began in earnest
on 24 November 1962 after a $4.6 million contract was awarded to the Atlantic
Gulf and Pacific Company to prepare sites for launch complexes 40 and 41
at the north end of Cape Canaveral. Dredging operations in the shallows
of the Banana River were underway by February 1963 to move 6.5 million
cubic yards of landfill from the river to the Integrate-Transfer-Launch
(ITL) sites. The contract for the TITAN IIIC launch complexes was awarded
to C.H. Leavell and Peter Kiewit & Sons on 13 June 1963, and it was
completed in 1965 for approximately $17 million. Most of the other ITL
facilities were grouped under a $26.8 million contract awarded to the firm
of Paul Hardeman and Morrison-Knudsen on 30 July 1963. That contract was
completed on 16 April 1965.
wide variety
of missions
The missions included: 1) the successful release of seven Initial Defense
Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP) satellites and one gravity gradient
satellite in June 1966, 2) the successful orbit of a modified GEMINI spacecraft
plus three secondary satellites in November 1966, 3) the successful release
of eight IDSCP satellites in January 1967, 4) the launch of three IDSCP
satellites, the LES-5 satellite and two other payloads in July 1967, 5)
the successful orbit of eight IDSCP satellites in June 1968, 6) the launch
of the LES-6 communications satellite and three scientific satellites into
various orbits in September 1968, 7) the orbit of a 1,600-pound Air Force
communications satellite in February 1969, 8) the launch of two VELA and
three experimental satellites in May 1969, 9) the successful orbit of two
more VELA satellites in April 1970 and 10) the launch of a classified DOD
payload in November 1970.
only
Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) test range to operate as a separate field
command
The Air Force Western Test Range (AFWTR) was under the control of the
Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC), and the Eglin Gulf Test Range was
under the control of the Armament Development and Test Center (ADTC).
SAMSO
SAMSO's space and missile functions were reorganized under two new
entities (Space Division and the Ballistic Missile Office) on 1 October
1979. Space Division became Space Systems Division on 15 March 1989. The
Ballistic Missile Office was redesignated the Ballistic Systems Division
on 15 March 1989, and it became the Ballistic Missile Organization under
Space Systems Division on 5 May 1990.
Space Division
Space Division remained responsible for managing the research and development,
testing, procurement and launch of most of the nation's military space
systems. Acquisition of space assets thus remained an AFSC and Space Division
function.
AFSCF
The AFSCF had been set up at Sunnyvale to perform three important functions:
1) on-orbit checkout of experimental and operational satellites, 2) trouble-shooting
problems with satellites, and 3) normal satellite control operations. Seven
remote tracking stations were added to create the Air Force Satellite Control
Network (AFSCN) in the 1960s. As satellite constellations became larger
and more varied, some normal control operations were transferred to other
satellite mission control systems (e.g., ground stations operated by Air
Defense Command and, later, by SAC), but the AFSCF continued to perform
tasks 1 and 2 and control Remote Tracking System (RTS) facilities.
The 1st
The 1st was assigned to ESMC on 1 October 1990, and it was placed under
the 45th Operations Group upon activation of the 45th Space Wing on 12
November 1991.
6555th
One hundred and seventy-five Test Group personnel were transferred
"on paper" from the 6555th Aerospace Test Group to the 1st Space
Launch Squadron and the ATLAS II and Titan IV CTFs in October 1990. Sixty-six
personnel remained with the 6555th formally after 1 October 1990, but that
number dwindled to around thirty-six people by the end of 1991. Following
the inactivation of ESMC and the activation of 45th Space Wing on 12 November
1991, the 1st Space Launch Squadron was reassigned from ESMC to the 45th
Operations Group. Both CTFs were placed under the 45th Operations Support
Squadron (45th Operations Group) until they could become fully operational
squadrons in their own right. Most of the people assigned to the new organizations
performed many of the same tasks they had before the transfer, but their
training and reporting procedures became increasingly operational in nature.
The ATLAS II CTF became the 3rd Space Launch Squadron after the second
military ATLAS II/CENTAUR launch on 2 July 1992. The 6555th was deactivated
when AFSC and Air Force Logistics Command merged to become Air Force Materiel
Command on 1 July 1992.
Air Force managed programs
The Air Force's SATKA efforts involved experiments with space-based
surveillance and tracking systems for locating and tracking ballistic missiles
in various portions of their flight trajectories. Directed energy weapon
experiments involved space- and ground-based lasers, and KEW programs supported
research into ground- and space-based kinetic kill vehicles and electromagnetic
launchers. Some of the programs were managed by Space Division's program
offices in Los Angeles, but others were managed by Air Force laboratories
or product divisions elsewhere in the United States. The Air Force's SDI
budget for Fiscal Year 1985 was $845 million, but it more than doubled
(to approximately $1.9 billion) in Fiscal 1986.
STS proposal
The Space Task Group, led by Vice President Spiro T. Agnew, presented
the STS proposal to the President in the form of three alternatives on
15 September 1969. Each alternative included a manned reusable shuttle
as part of a balanced program of space launch vehicles, and the Group recommended
the Space Shuttle for a wide variety of DOD and NASA missions. As one of
the many victims of budget cutbacks in the late 1960s, the Air Force's
Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program had just been cancelled. Since
the Air Force would not be able to field a manned space program of its
own, the AFSC Commander (General James Ferguson) concluded that the use
of the Space Shuttle for manned military space missions was essential.
General Ferguson confirmed this point in a letter to the Air Force Chief
of Staff in late October 1969. He also suggested the Air Force look into:
1) the kinds of military missions the Shuttle would support, 2) the extent
of Air Force involvement in the program's management and 3) the scope of
Air Force/NASA agreements needed to ensure the Shuttle met military requirements.
Interim Upper Stage IUS
NASA expected to replace the Interim Upper Stage with NASA's Space
Tug, but the Space Tug never materialized. On 16 December 1977, Air Force
Assistant Secretary Dr. John J. Martin directed the Air Force to redesignate
the IUS as the "Inertial Upper Stage."
higher energy orbits
The Air Force's interest in the IUS was based on the belief that more
than half of all future DOD spacecraft would operate from high energy orbits.
Since the Shuttle was confined to low-Earth orbits, high-orbiting DOD payloads
would require a Shuttle-compatible version of the IUS. The IUS would also
be designed to operate with unmanned vehicles (e.g., Titan IIIC).
serious deficiencies
The problems included cracks in the small solid rocket motor nozzles,
defective exit cones, and bad propellant.
Shuttle facilities
The responsibility for designing Shuttle launch and support facilities
at Vandenberg was divided among the Air Force, the Navy and the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers. The Air Force and Navy hired contractors to design
the projects assigned to them, but the Corps of Engineers did some of the
design work itself. The Corps of Engineers and the Naval Facilities Command
contracted out the actual construction, but Air Force Systems Command controlled
the funds for the entire project and approved any major changes. The Space
and Missile Systems Organization monitored the construction effort and
obtained equipment for the facilities.
Challenger disaster
By the end of 1985, SLC-6's first Shuttle launch was scheduled for
July 1986. Since the pad still lacked a hydrogen disposal system in January
1986, that launch date was questionable. On 28 January 1986, the Shuttle
Challenger was engulfed in a fireball after its external tank exploded
73 seconds after lift-off from the Kennedy Space Center's Pad 39B. The
Challenger disaster and its aftermath eliminated any possibility of a west
coast launch after January 1986. In effect, added safety features made
the Shuttle too heavy to fly missions from Vandenberg.
minimum caretaker status
The difference between operational caretaker status and minimum caretaker
status related to the level of effort expended to preserve a site for future
operations. Left in operational caretaker status, SLC-6 could have been
readied for launch operations in two years. In minimum caretaker condition,
the facility would require at least four years of concerted effort to prepare
it for launch operations.
technical
direction of Vandenberg's SCOUT launches to NASA.
NASA already supervised SCOUT missions launched from Wallops Island
and the San Marcos platform, including military launches.
DELTA
Only the first two stages of the DELTA used liquid fuel (i.e., RP-1
for the first stage and Aerozine-50 for the second stage). Liquid oxygen
was the oxidizer in the first stage, and the second stage used nitrogen
tetroxide as its oxidizer. The second stage was capable of multiple starts
to adjust the third stage and spacecraft's course. The third stage was
a Thiokol solid rocket rated at approximately 14,000 pounds of thrust.
DELTA launch vehicle
In the 1960s, the DELTA was somewhat shorter. Its first stage was a
70-foot-long THOR rated at 172,000 pounds of thrust. From the 1970s onward,
DELTAs was equipped with THOR first stages that were approximately 74 feet
long. All THOR stages were eight feet in diameter. The DELTA's second stage
was approximately 20 feet long and five feet nine inches in diameter. Its
Aerojet ITIP engine generated more than 9,000 pounds of thrust. Seated
atop the first stage, the second stage carried a miniskirt assembly (eight
feet in diameter and eleven inches high) attached 42 inches from its top.
The miniskirt attached to an interstage barrel that extended upward from
the first stage. The interstage barrel was eight feet in diameter, and
it gave the DELTA its "straight eight" (unbroken eight-foot diameter)
profile. The payload fairing topped off the vehicle, giving it a height
of 112 to 116 feet.
NASA
NASA supervised all DELTA missions launched from Space Launch Complex
2 (West) at Vandenberg and Complex 17 at the Cape during the 1970s and
most of the 1980s. As we noted earlier, the Delta program and Complex 17
were transferred to the Air Force toward the end of 1988.
The first of those payloads
The first mission involved a Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM)
satellite, and it was accomplished under a contract between SAMSO and NASA
to launch the spacecraft on a NASA ATLAS/CENTAUR vehicle. Though NASA and
its contractors were responsible for the preparation and launch of the
vehicle, the FLTSATCOM spacecraft was received, processed, checked out,
stored and tested by the Air Force and its contractors. The launch on February
9th was successful, and the spacecraft became an integral part of the U.S.
Navy's FLTSATCOM system and the Air Force's Satellite Communications System
(AFSATCOM). The FLTSATCOM system provided instant, secure and reliable
communications between the President of the United States and his military
commanders as well as naval aircraft, ships, submarines and ground stations
around the world. Seven more FLTSATCOM satellites were boosted into space
from Launch Complex 36 over the next 11 years. (See Chapter III for details
of those missions.)
family of heavy spacelifters
Though some may want to include the TITAN IIIE as an Air Force launch
vehicle, the "E" was not, strictly speaking, an Air Force booster:
it was supported by the Air Force and its contractors, but it was dedicated
to NASA missions. In a joint-agency effort, NASA and the Air Force launched
TITAN IIIEs from Complex 41 on a VIKING simulator mission and a HELIOS
solar mission in 1974, two VIKING missions to Mars in 1975, another HELIOS
mission in 1976 and two VOYAGER missions to the outer planets in 1977.
The TITAN IIIE consisted of a standard core, two solid rocket motors and
a CENTAUR upper stage.
standard core
The standard core consisted of two stages. Both stages were 10 feet
in diameter, but the first stage was 71 feet long and the second stage
was 37 feet long. Both stages burned a 50/50 mixture of hydrazine and unsymmetrical
dimethylhydrazine with nitrogen tetroxide as the oxidizer. In fueled condition,
the standard core weighed 342,000 pounds, and it produced between 470,000
and 520,000 pounds of thrust when it was ignited at an altitude of 28 nautical
miles (i.e., when boosted off the launch pad in TITAN IIIC or TITAN IIID
configuration). The TITAN IIIB's stretched core was 68 inches longer than
the standard core, but its power was somewhat less-this was due to the
fact that the TITAN IIIB's core was ignited at lift-off rather than at
altitude.
TITAN
IIICs were launched only from Launch Complex 40
Complex 41 supported TITAN IIIC missions in the late 1960s, but it
was devoted to TITAN IIIE space missions in the 1970s before its deactivation
in 1977.
TITAN IIIC's and TITAN
IIID
The solid rocket motors for the TITAN IIICs and Ds were provided by
the Chemical Systems Division of the United Technologies Corporation. Aerojet
Liquid Rocket Company provided the liquid rocket engines, and McDonnell
Douglas provided the payload fairings for the TITAN IIICs. Delco Electronics
manufactured the guidance sets, and the instrumentation systems came from
SCI Systems. Actron provided the command destruct receivers. All those
subsystems were delivered to Martin Marietta for integration with Martin's
own TITAN airframes.
TITAN
34D would replace the TITAN IIIC and TITAN IIID
The TITAN IIIB program was unaffected by the decision to develop the
TITAN 34D. TITAN IIIB operations continued at Space Launch Complex 4 (West)
through February 1987. TITAN II space launches continued from that site
in 1988.
orbiter's main engines
Space Shuttle orbiters were equipped with three main engines rated
at approximately 390,000 pounds of thrust each at sea level. They all fired
at lift-off, providing power along with two 149-foot-long solid rocket
boosters rated at 2,650,000 pounds of thrust each. In its launch configuration,
the orbiter was attached to a 154-foot-long external tank, which, in turn,
was attached to the two solid rocket boosters. The assembled vehicle was
approximately 184 feet tall.
Solid Motor Assembly
Building (SMAB)
Space Division was responsible for developing the facilities that would
be used to assemble and check out the IUS and mate it with its payloads.
The first IUS processing operations would be carried out in the east end
of the SMAB, but Shuttle payloads would be mated with IUSs in the west
end of the SMAB later on.
three different problems
The first of those problems involved about 50 square feet of insulation
that debonded from Columbia's external tank during a fuel-loading test
in January 1981. Tank repairs pushed the launch back to 5 April 1981. A
further delay of about five days was precipitated by a short labor strike
against Boeing by machinists and aerospace workers. The third and final
delay was caused by a computer anomaly which forced a launch scrub about
20 minutes before Columbia was scheduled to lift off on April 10th.
"lessons learned"
reports
The 6555th's report on the subject, "82-1 Ground Processing Lessons
Learned Summary," (dated November 1982) observed that Shuttle/DOD
missions were manpower intensive and that a cadre of Defense Department
officials (in addition to the 6555th's standard test team) would be needed
to support a plethora of NASA meetings (e.g., scheduling meetings, procedure
reviews, pretest meetings, communications, security etc.). A fundamental
difference between Shuttle and unmanned launch operations was also noted
under "General Observations" in the report: whereas the Test
Group and KSC's Expendable Launch Director looked forward to a successful
satellite deployment, NASA's overriding concern during a Shuttle mission
was the successful launch and recovery of the orbiter. The payload, of
necessity, took a backseat to the safety of the orbiter and its crew. The
report went on to note that "the spacecraft community just doesn't
have the clout it is accustomed to."
Columbia's STS-5 flight
Columbia was commanded by Vance Brand and piloted by Robert F. Overmyer
on this mission. The mission specialists were Dr. William B. Lenoir and
Dr. Joseph P. Allen. Columbia was launched from Pad 39A at 1219:00 Greenwich
Mean Time on 12 November 1982, and the orbiter made a hard-surface runway
landing at Edwards Air Force Base on 16 November 1982.
first
extravehicular activity (i.e., spacewalk)
Dr. Lenoir and Dr. Allen were scheduled to perform the first spacewalk
during STS-5, but a spacesuit malfunction forced the spacewalk's cancellation.
Mission specialists Donald H. Peterson and Dr. F. Story Musgrave performed
the first Shuttle spacewalk on STS-6.
Challenger's second
mission (STS-7)
The satellites were designated ANIK C-2 (sponsored by TELESAT CANADA)
and PALAPA B-1 (sponsored by Indonesia). The orbiter commander for the
seven-day mission was Navy Captain Robert L. Crippen, and Navy Captain
Frederick C. Hauck served as Challenger's pilot. The mission specialists
for STS-7 were Dr. Sally K. Ride, Air Force Lt. Colonel John M. Fabian
and Dr. Norman Thagard.
Challenger's third mission
One of the primary objectives of Challenger's third mission (STS-8)
was communications link testing with the TDRS-A satellite deployed on STS-6.
The tests were conducted successfully during days one through five of STS-8.
That flight (STS-8)
Challenger was commanded on STS-8 by Navy Captain Richard H. Truly.
Commander Daniel C. Brandenstein piloted the orbiter. The mission specialists
were Lt. Commander Dale A. Gardner, Air Force Colonel Guion S. Bluford,
and Dr. William E. Thornton. Challenger touched down on Edwards' Runway
22 at 0740:43 Greenwich Mean Time on 5 September 1983.
Space Lab
Space Lab was a shared venture by the ten nations represented in the
European Space Agency (i.e., France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany,
Denmark, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Switzerland and Austria). The
Space Lab laboratory system consisted of a pressurized core, a long or
short module for experiments, and an unpressurized pallet. The pressurized
core was connected to the orbiter's cabin to provide a shirtsleeve work
environment for payload specialists. Once Columbia was in orbit, the six-man
crew worked in two three-man shifts to provide around-the clock Space Lab
operations during the STS-9 mission. Space Lab was designed to be used
up to 50 times during its 10-year lifespan, and it was flown on several
Shuttle missions after its debut on STS-9.
CELV's concept definition
On 6 January 1984, Space Division asked Martin Marietta and General
Dynamics' Convair Division to develop concepts for the CELV based on the
TITAN 34D (for Martin Marietta) and the ATLAS (for Convair). Each contractor
was to spend four months and no more than $500,000 to define the new vehicle
in terms of the necessary upgrades.
NASA protested the CELV
action
NASA Administrator James M. Beggs believed with some justification
that any withdrawal of military payloads from the Shuttle's launch manifest
tended to undermine financial support for the Space Transportation System
by lowering the flight rate (at least on paper) and raising the average
cost of Shuttle missions. Beggs filed his protests with the Secretary of
the Air Force and the Secretary of Defense in May 1984. NASA also protested
the CELV action to Congress during the same period.
CENTAUR G
The Air Force and NASA both concluded that a more powerful upper stage
was needed for two DOD/Shuttle missions in 1987 and NASA's Galileo and
International Solar Polar missions. The new upper stage - called the CENTAUR
G (military version) and the CENTAUR G' (NASA version) - would be adapted
from the CENTAUR upper stage already in use on the ATLAS/CENTAUR launch
vehicle. The CENTAUR G would be 19.5 feet long and 14.2 feet in diameter
(versus the ATLAS/CENTAUR's 30 x 10-foot upper stage). Since NASA's interplanetary
missions required greater endurance, NASA planned to make the CENTAUR G'
29.1 feet long to store the extra fuel and oxidizer needed for the Galileo's
mission to Jupiter and the International Solar Polar mission. The new CENTAUR
G would be twice as powerful as the IUS, and it would be able to place
a 10,000-pound payload into geosynchronous orbit from the Shuttle's cargo
bay or, as proposed by Martin Marietta, from the top of a TITAN 34D7. A
joint NASA/DOD CENTAUR working group was already hard at work on CENTAUR
G/G' spacecraft requirements and upper stage configurations when Martin
Marietta proposed the TITAN 34D7.
TITAN IV
Like its TITAN IIIC and TITAN 34D ancestors, the TITAN IV would be
configured around three stages. State O consisted of two seven-segment
solid rocket motors that were 10 feet in diameter and 112.9 feet long.
The motors weighed about 695,000 pounds apiece, and they provided a combined
thrust of approximately 3,000,000 pounds at lift-off. They burned UTP-300B
solid composite propellant during the first 111 seconds of flight, remained
on the vehicle until about ten seconds after Stage I ignited, and separated
from the liquid core at an altitude of about 175,000 feet approximately
126.4 seconds into the flight. Stage I was 10 feet in diameter and 86.5
feet long. It fired for the first time about 116.6 seconds into the flight,
and its liquid turbopump-fed engine generated about 547,000 pounds of thrust
from a 50/50 mixture of hydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH).
In a typical east coast launch, Stage II ignited approximately 302.1 seconds
into the flight at an altitude of about 468,700 feet. Stage I was jettisoned
less than a second later, and Stage II continued to burn its own supply
of nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH for about 222.8 seconds. Stage II was 32.7
feet long and ten feet in diameter, and it weighed about 86,000 pounds
at the start of its burn. It provided approximately 106,000 pounds of thrust
at shutdown about 532.9 seconds into the flight. At the time of separation,
Stage II and its payload were about 1,000 nautical miles downrange at an
altitude of 532,000 feet. The payload subsequently entered a parking orbit
(e.g., 80 x 95 nautical miles).
converted
TITAN II missile/space boosters
The Strategic Air Command's inventory of 55 inactivated TITAN II ICBMs
was transferred to AFSC and converted into a supply of space boosters to
launch relatively small payloads into space. The first TITAN II missile/space
booster was rolled out on 3 August 1987, and the first TITAN II space booster
was launched from Vandenberg's Space Launch Complex 4 (West) on 5 September
1988.
On 28
August 1985, a TITAN 34D launch failure
An Air Force Class A Space Mishap Investigation Board was established
under Brigadier General Donald J. Kutyna, and it examined the TITAN 34D
mishap from September 3rd through October 18th. In its final progress report
(issued 28 October 1985), the Board concluded the failure occurred in the
first stage of the TITAN's liquid core. No "absolute" cause could
be determined, but the evidence suggested the vehicle experienced an oxidizer
propellant system leak as well as a turbopump subassembly failure. Since
the TITAN required both engine subassemblies to maintain controlled flight,
the subassembly failure caused the vehicle to go out of control. The turbopump
failed when its pinion gear broke down due to loss of gear cooling, lubrication
or some kind of pressurization loss-the ultimate cause remained unknown.
TITAN
34D was launched from Vandenberg on 18 April 1986
TITAN 34D-9 exploded eight seconds after lifting off Space Launch Complex
4 (East) on April 18th. Upper sections of the vehicle's solid rockets and
bare fuel showered the launch pad, causing severe damage to launch facilities
nearby. In some instances, large steel fragments were blown 3000 feet from
the point of impact. The explosion also created a toxic cloud that rose
to an altitude of 8000 feet before it was blown out over the Pacific Ocean.
The AFSC Inspector General's Office selected the ESMC Commander, Brigadier
General (Selectee) Nathan J. Lindsay, to serve as the president for the
Mishap Investigation Board. The Board issued its final progress report
on 9 June 1986, and that report suggested a variety of potential causes,
mostly related to solid propellant/insulation debonding.
recovery program
The Air Force initiated an intensive recovery program for the TITAN
34D and its ground support systems. The recovery included in-depth hardware
inspections (featuring x-ray and other non-destructive tests), additional
engine instrumentation, rocket motor joint heaters and procedural improvements.
As Air Force Secretary Edward C. Aldridge noted after a TITAN 34D launch
at the Cape in November 1987, the launches on both coasts emphasized "our
confidence in the TITAN launch system and its ability to launch critical
national security payloads in support of America's space launch recovery
program."
launch failures of 1986
In addition to the Challenger disaster in January and the TITAN 34D-9
mission failure in April 1986, a DELTA carrying the GOES-G weather satellite
broke up about a minute and a half after lift-off from the Cape on 3 May
1986. (Range safety officers sent arm and destruct commands to the vehicle
at T plus 90.1 seconds). The immediate cause of the flight failure was
an early main engine cutoff, but the root of the failure needed to be determined
before more DELTAs were allowed to fly. Since there were similarities in
the ATLAS and DELTA main engineering electronics relay boxes/wiring harnesses,
the subsequent DELTA-178 accident investigation delayed testing support
for both types of vehicles for several months. The next DELTA mission (DELTA-180)
was launched successfully on 5 September 1986, and the next ATLAS-CENTAUR
mission (AC-66) was launched successfully on 5 December 1986.
contract for13
additional TITAN IVs
That contract was definitized in December 1987. In addition to accelerating
the launch rate, Martin agreed to launch some TITAN IVs from Vandenberg
and add a No Upper Stage (NUS) configuration to the CENTAUR and IUS configurations
already on contract. The total value of the (now) 23-vehicle contract was
$4,420,000,000. It should be noted that the government did not accept any
TITAN IV launch vehicle until the booster was at least one inch off the
pad (following launch). Space Division agreed to pay a $7 million incentive
fee for each flight success, but Martin Marietta would be penalized $45
million for each flight failure.
MLVs were needed
The TITAN II launch vehicle did not have sufficient thrust to boost
1,850-pound and 2,100-pound Block II satellites into their required 10,898-nautical-mile-high
orbits. The TITAN IV could have been used, but it was clearly too big to
boost NAVSTAR satellites into orbit economically. The MLV was needed to
fill the gap between the TITAN II and TITAN IV. Under the new launch plan,
the first NAVSTAR Block II satellite would be launched on an MLV around
January 1989 - two years later than its previously estimated first launch
date aboard the Shuttle. If all went well, a constellation of 18 GPS satellites
and three orbiting spares could be in orbit by January 1991.
DELTA II
The DELTA II's first stage produced at least 207,000 pounds of thrust,
and six of the DELTA II's nine solid rockets added approximately 97,000
pound of thrust (each) at lift-off. The DELTA II's three remaining solid
rockets fired after lift-off, and they produced between 110,200 and 112,300
pounds of average thrust (each) at altitude. The DELTA's second stage was
equipped with an Aerojet AJ10-18K engine rated at approximately 9,645 pounds
of thrust at altitude. The Model 6925's solid rockets featured steel casings
like the older DELTAs, but the Model 7925's solid rockets were known as
Graphite Epoxy Motors (GEMs) because of their lighter graphite-epoxy casings.
The GEMs and steel-cased Castor IVAs weighed 28,657 pounds and 25,562 pounds
respectively, and all of the GEM's additional weight was translated into
fuel. The GEMs were longer than the steel-cased Castor IVAs (e.g., 401.6
inches versus 323.4 inches), and they produced about 16 percent more impulse
power (and 25,000 pounds more maximum power) than the steel-cased Castor
IVAs. The GEMs' higher performance accounted for the margin of power the
Model 7925 needed to boost heavier Block II satellites into 10,898-nautical-mile-high
orbits.
CENTAUR G' (upper
stage) project
The Shuttle-configured CENTAUR G' effort was managed by a NASA/Air
Force joint program office at NASA's Lewis Research Center in Cleveland,
Ohio. NASA retained overall management for the project, but Space Division
provided five officers and a deputy project manager.
TITAN IV contract
with Martin Marietta
Martin Marietta subcontracted its CENTAUR G upper stages to General
Dynamics Space Systems Division.
review of the CENTAUR's
design
Space Division remained committed to the TITAN IV/CENTAUR concept following
that review. As Space Systems Division, the agency increased its procurement
to 15 CENTAURs in September 1990.
DELTA program
Though NASA sponsored its last DELTA payload processing operation at
the Cape in 1989, military and civilian DELTA space launches continued
under Air Force sponsorship following the transfer of Complex 17 and its
support facilities back to the Air Force in September and October 1988.
McDonnell Douglas launched its first commercial DELTA mission from Pad
17B on 27 August 1989. As mentioned earlier, the first DELTA II/NAVSTAR
mission was launched from Pad 17A on 14 February 1989.
ATLAS/CENTAUR vehicle
The ATLAS II's fuel tank was nine feet longer than the ATLAS G's fuel
tank, and the CENTAUR upper stage was three feet longer. The ATLAS II's
uprated Rocketdyne MA-5A engine system (i.e., two boosters and one sustainer)
produced approximately 484,000 pounds of thrust. The ATLAS G and ATLAS
II used the same CENTAUR engines (e.g., Pratt & Whitney RL10A-3-3A
engines), but the ATLAS IIA's CENTAUR would be equipped with two upgraded
Pratt & Whitney RL10A-4 engines rated at 20,800 pounds of thrust each.
DSCS III spacecraft
Three DSCS III spacecraft had been orbited previously for developmental
purposes to demonstrate the satellite's concepts, systems and interfaces
with ground stations. The first two operational DSCS III payloads were
launched on the Shuttle. The DSCS III launched on February 11th was pushed
into orbit by the first production Integrated Apogee Boost Subsystem (IABS).
The DSCS III was orbited to support worldwide communications between military
command posts and forces in the field.
"return to flight"
The flight of Discovery from 29 September through 3 October 1988 heralded
the resumption of Shuttle missions after the Challenger tragedy. Discovery's
mission was the culmination of a 32-month long recovery effort, which amounted
to a thorough reappraisal of all Shuttle systems. During that period, the
Shuttle's solid rocket boosters were redesigned (with special attention
given to the rocket motor joints and seals). Most of the three surviving
orbiters' major systems and components were removed and sent back to their
vendors for inspection, modification or refabrication. When the Shuttle
fleet stood down in 1986, Discovery's processing operations were reoriented
toward the recovery: the orbiter was moved back and forth between the Vertical
Assembly Building (VAB) and the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) for various
modifications during the summer of 1986, and Discovery's major systems
were returned to their vendors for modification in the fall. Flight processing
began in mid-September 1987, and Discovery's three main engines were installed
at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in January 1988. The newly redesigned
solid rocket booster segments started arriving at KSC on March 1st, and
booster stacking operations were completed between the end of March and
the end of May 1988. The boosters were mated to Discovery's external tank
on June 10th, and Discovery was moved from the OPF to the VAB on June 21st
so the orbiter could be mated to the rest of the vehicle. Discovery rolled
out of the VAB on the 4th of July and began its trip to Pad 39B. The Flight
Readiness Firing was conducted successfully on 10 August 1988, and an Orbital
Maneuvering System leak was repaired on August 19th. While minor problems
were noted during the flight in September and October 1988, the mission
was a complete success.